1인 가구 증가에 따른 정책 대응 고찰: 영국과 한국 사례를 중심으로

2023년 7월

유  다  움

국외훈련 개요

1. 훈 련 국 : 영국

2. 훈련기관명 : 버밍엄대학교

(University of Birmingham)

3. 훈련분야 : 복지

4. 훈련기간 : 2022. 7. 18. ~ 2023. 7. 17.

Contents

1. Introduction	4

2. Impact of loneliness and social isolation	6

3. UK: Loneliness policies	16

4. Loneliness Policies of European countries	18

5. Korea: Policies for Single-person household and lonely death	39

6. Policy implications and recommendations	46

7. Conclusion	50

A Study on the Policy Response to the Increase in Single-person Households: Focusing on the UK and Korea

Introduction

Increase of the number of single-person households is seemingly becoming a worldwide trend to the extent we feel and experience in everyday life. For example, in Korea, there has been a huge success of an entertainment show covering celebrities living alone, and restaurants promoting solo diners. It is more and more probable that most of us could experience living alone at least once in a lifetime as we live a longer life that comes with various aspects.

Single-person households, which were rare a century ago, have actually become increasingly common in many countries across the world and in some developed countries such as Norway and Sweden they account for almost half of all households. According to surveys and census data from recent decades, one-person households are more prevalent in developed nations and the acceleration in the increase of single-person households seems to be unprecedented historically (Ortiz-Ospina, 2019).

The increase of people living alone itself can be simply a matter of choice rather than a matter of concern, and living alone not necessarily means that the person lacks support; they might have others on whom they can rely on both economically and emotionally (Palmer, 2006). The issue to be focused on the rise of one-person households is possible by-products of it: its vulnerabilities towards poverty, loneliness, social isolation, etc.

To examine social issues accompanied by the increase of single-person households, comparative analysis dealing with the cases of the United Kingdom (UK) and Korea will be implemented under the research question: What are the key policy responses implemented in the UK and Korea to address single-person household issue?

The two countries have similar rate of one-person households, which has been around 30% in recent years (UNECE, no date; KOSIS, 2022), and do not belong to any ideal type of welfare regimes (Esping-Andersen, 1990), featuring similarities such as state-dominated health insurance system. Also, the policies of the UK addressing people living on their own have been referred to researches in Korea exploring policy direction towards one-person households (Kim et al., 2022; Lee, 2019; Lee and Choi, 2015; Byun, 2015).

However, it is challenging to find policies exclusively targeting single-person households in the UK. This is because European countries, including the UK, have been experiencing an increase in single-person households since the 1970s and 1980s due to high divorce rates, separation rates, and population concentration in major cities or metropolitan areas. As a result, they have been developing universal social security policies that encompass single-person households (Kim, 2019).

Instead, the UK is the world's first country to establish a dedicated department to address the issue of "loneliness," which can affect anyone but can be particularly severe in single-person households. It is difficult to avoid criticism that policies exclusively targeting single-person households promote their growth. The fundamental reason for supporting single-person households is to mitigate the socio-economic problems resulting from the increase in such households. Therefore, it is necessary to closely examine the case of the UK, which focuses its policies on addressing the issue of loneliness that can be experienced by all household types and across all age groups.

The purpose of this report is not simply to suggest that we adopt the loneliness policies being pursued in the UK, but rather to gain insights and find relevant aspects that we have overlooked by examining the background and process of policy implementation in the UK, which approaches similar phenomena differently from us.

To achieve this, this report first explores the definitions of loneliness and social isolation, key terms in this study, and examines their impact on individuals and society. It then delves into the background, content, and achievements of the UK's loneliness policies in detail, while briefly examining loneliness-related policies in several European countries. Subsequently, it provides an overview of the current status of policies related to single-person households and lonely death in Korea, followed by conclusion with policy implications and recommendations.

2. Impact of loneliness and social isolation

2.1. Definitions

Before moving on to delve into policies alleviating loneliness and social isolation, looking over the definitions of loneliness and social isolation and the major factors causing them might be necessary as a base of research.

Loneliness is commonly perceived as an unpleasant emotional state that arises when there is a disparity between the desired and actual level of social connections in terms of quantity and quality. Social isolation refers to a decrease in social interaction and connections. These two phenomena, however, can be interconnected and mutually influence each other, leading to adverse effects on individuals' overall well-being and quality of life (Sandu et al., 2021).

Loneliness can also encompass more than just an individual's personal relationships and can extend to larger social units like communities. It can manifest both in crowded environments and when one is alone. While loneliness and social isolation are often used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings. Social isolation specifically pertains to the insufficient quantity and quality of social connections across various levels of human interaction (Osborn et al., 2021).

Marczak et al. (2019) emphasizes that the importance to discern social isolation and loneliness despite measures to reduce them often applied for both. Social isolation pertains to the absence of interaction with family, friends, or others, and can be measured by examining the frequency and duration of these contacts. On the other hand, loneliness is an emotional state that may or may not coincide with social isolation, and can only be assessed by directly asking individuals about their subjective experience of feeling lonely (Marczak et al., 2019).

Then what is the relationship between social isolation and loneliness? It is clear that social isolation is one factor that can contribute to increased loneliness. However, if individuals choose to be alone and enjoy their solitary state, loneliness may not occur. Conversely, experiencing loneliness does not necessarily lead to social isolation. Increasing the quantity or frequency of social connections does not guarantee a decrease or elimination of loneliness. Therefore, in terms of social relationships, the quality of connections may be more important than the quantity (Shin and Choi, 2019).

2.2. Factors

Factors arousing loneliness seem to differ by age, personal experiences or circumstances.

Research conducted on a population level reveals that the occurrence of loneliness follows a U-shaped pattern in the UK and Denmark, with higher prevalence observed among individuals below the age of 25 and those above the age of 65. Loneliness has been found frequently among older people due to longer period of time living alone because of bereavement and children's marriage. However, loneliness prevalent among younger people has been noticed recently. Experiencing residence in a disadvantaged neighborhood, unemployment, limited educational attainment, and enduring mental health issues are linked to significant loneliness among individuals below the age of 25. Various factors, including genetics, cognition, social influences, and cultural norms, contribute to the vulnerability of young people to loneliness. During this stage, there is often a strong emphasis on the importance of friendships and romantic relationships. The period of adolescence and early adulthood involves significant life changes, such as leaving the parental home, which can lead to shifts in the quantity and quality of personal interactions as individuals strive for economic independence and the development of their own identity (Osborn et al., 2021).

Loneliness can be intensified by various factors such as social exclusion, discrimination, stigma, certain patterns of social media usage, and influenced by factors like trust. Additionally, the pressure to stay connected can amplify feelings of loneliness, which can be influenced by factors like low self-esteem. However, it might be important to note that these influences are often specific to the context and can vary among individuals, groups, cultures, and evolve over time (Osborn et al., 2021).

Figure 1: Causes of loneliness

(Source: DCMS (2018), A connected society: A Strategy for tackling loneliness – laying the foundations for change, p. 15.)

Factors that contribute to increased likelihood of experiencing loneliness include certain individual circumstances. These circumstances include being single, divorced, or widowed, lacking close family or strong relationships within one's social network. People who live alone or undergo transitions such as becoming a caregiver or no longer being one are more prone to feelings of loneliness. Additional risks of loneliness and isolation are associated with factors such as migration status, belonging to a minority or ethnic group, having low education or income levels. Traumatic events such as abuse, imprisonment, addiction, or homelessness can also contribute to feelings of loneliness. Moreover, any form of health-related loss, such as dementia, poor physical health, impaired mobility, disability, or sensory impairment, could significantly increase the risk of experiencing loneliness and isolation (Sandu et al., 2021).

Various factors related to the community in which individuals reside contribute to social isolation and feelings of loneliness. These factors encompass elements such as the social infrastructure within neighborhoods, the physical environment, as well as challenges pertaining to distance and transportation. For example, older individuals residing in rural areas with physical limitations face difficulties in maintaining social connections due to reduced mobility. Similarly, older adults living in unsafe and disadvantaged neighborhoods in urban areas are also susceptible to experiences of isolation and loneliness. Additional risk factors include high living costs, limited job prospects, and inadequate access to communication technologies and the internet (Sandu et al., 2021).

Also, the broader socio-economic and cultural context plays a significant role in determining social isolation and feelings of loneliness. Factors such as material deprivation and low economic status limit opportunities for social interaction and participation in social and volunteering endeavors. The overall welfare system and access to support services also directly influence the isolation and loneliness experienced by older individuals. This includes pension policies that impact income levels and subsequently affect one's ability to actively engage in society (Sandu et al., 2021).

Moreover, Loneliness and isolation is manifested in different ways for each individual, leading to varying effects of the same factors or situations on different people (Sandu et al., 2021).

Meanwhile, social isolation can occur at any stage of life, and it has been analyzed from a life cycle perspective. The factors contributing to social isolation can be influenced by negative experiences during childhood and youth. During childhood, factors such as child abuse, domestic violence, school bullying, social exclusion, low academic achievement, and academic failures can contribute to social isolation. In youth, factors such as unemployment, labor market maladjustment, and long-term unemployment can contribute to social isolation in the labor market (Yu et al., 2021).

2.3. Impact

While social isolation and loneliness can manifest at various stages of life, they tend to primarily impact older people. Research suggests that nearly half of people aged over 60 are susceptible to social isolation, and about one-third experience varying degrees of loneliness. Older individuals affected by social isolation and loneliness often experience a decline in quality of life, cognitive impairment, diminished well-being, and a loss of independence. Long-term studies have demonstrated that the oldest old, who endure prolonged exposure to social isolation and loneliness, face the highest risk of experiencing adverse effects on their physical health and overall well-being (Marczak et al., 2019).

The experience of loneliness and social isolation among older individuals is often attributed to factors such as deteriorating health, reduced mobility, life transitions like retirement, and losses associated with aging. Moreover, age-related biases, prejudice, and discrimination further contribute to the likelihood of feeling lonely and becoming socially isolated. In Europe, the trend of increased longevity is accompanied by a higher prevalence of living alone, leading to a projected rise in loneliness and isolation due to the aging population (Sandu et al., 2021).

Loneliness is recognized as a significant public health concern, primarily affecting older individuals, but its impact on young people is increasingly acknowledged. A substantial percentage, up to 80%, of young individuals acknowledge having experienced loneliness at some point, with approximately one in ten reporting frequent feelings of loneliness. In the UK, various organizations, such as the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), the Mental Health Foundation, Co-operative Foundation, and the Children's Society, prioritize initiatives aimed at addressing youth loneliness (Osborn et al., 2021).

Cross-sectional studies have revealed connections between loneliness and physiological changes as well as mental health difficulties. Among young individuals, experiencing chronic loneliness, which is persistent and distressing, is linked to both immediate and long-term negative health outcomes. For instance, in this age group, chronic loneliness has been associated with depression, suicidal thoughts, and correlated with anxiety, social phobias, self-harm, and eating disorders. However, determining the causality of many of these associations is challenging. Longitudinal research conducted in the USA, UK, and New Zealand has discovered that young people who are lonely and socially isolated have a significantly higher likelihood of developing cardiovascular risk factors, mental health problems, and ineffective coping strategies in adulthood compared to their non-lonely counterparts. In a UK study, individuals who reported loneliness and social isolation at the age of 18 were found to have experienced more frequent bullying, mental health issues, and lower self-esteem during childhood and adolescence. This suggests a bidirectional relationship, where poor health outcomes can contribute to loneliness, and loneliness can undermine health (Osborn et al., 2021).

Social isolation and loneliness have a significant impact on two key aspects: quality of life and health status. Studies indicate that both severe and moderate loneliness have a detrimental effect on the quality of life. Individuals who are isolated and lonely often experience feelings of pessimism, vulnerability, worthlessness, and have lower self-esteem, along with reduced interpersonal control. Additionally, isolated individuals and those who feel lonely are more susceptible to feelings of anxiety and fatigue (Sandu et al., 2021).

Significantly, negative health consequences have been linked to both loneliness and social isolation. While loneliness is a widespread experience shared by all individuals, chronic loneliness has consistently proven to be distressing and harmful to both physical and mental well-being (Osborn et al., 2021).

Loneliness and isolation can contribute to various health problems, as social connections play a crucial role in regulating stress and promoting healthier behaviors. Individuals with fewer social connections face a higher risk of premature mortality. Moreover, isolated and lonely individuals are more susceptible to conditions like heart disease and hypertension. Additionally, feelings of loneliness are often associated with disrupted sleep, unhealthy eating habits, reduced mobility, decreased resilience, and an increased likelihood of engaging in smoking and addictive behaviors (Sandu et al., 2021).

In addition, loneliness and social isolation may have a detrimental effect on overall health. Loneliness and weak social connections are associated with a lifespan reduction similar to that caused by smoking 15 cigarettes a day, a greater risk of cardiovascular disease, dementia, depression, and anxiety, reducing performance, creativity, even reasoning and decision making at work (Murthy, 2017). Another research demonstrates that social isolation can be a predictor of mortality equivalent to smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol (Pantell et al., 2013).

Throughout the past year, Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) has continued to contribute to the existing knowledge base and address the gaps identified in the evidence review. In June 2022, they published qualitative research focused on mental health, which revealed a bidirectional and cyclical relationship between loneliness and mental health. The study found that mental health issues can contribute to increased feelings of loneliness, while loneliness can also have a detrimental impact on mental health. Additionally, the research highlighted the influence of stigma associated with mental health and loneliness, which hindered participants from expressing their feelings openly and resulted in a decreased sense of connection to others. DCMS also commissioned research to investigate the factors associated with loneliness, aiming to gain a better understanding of the groups most at risk. The findings indicated that the following groups face a higher risk of loneliness:

Young people, with a higher likelihood of loneliness observed in younger age groups compared to those aged 65 or over;

Individuals with poor mental well-being;

People with disabilities or long-standing health problems;

Individuals not living with a partner (either married or cohabiting).

Gay, lesbian, or bisexual individuals, as well as those who identified as "other" when asked about their sexual orientation;

People with lower incomes (particularly those in the two poorest quintiles compared to the wealthiest quintile);

Unemployed individuals;

Individuals who recently moved to their current address;

Women, who are more susceptible to loneliness than men (GOV.UK, 2023).

Also, the impact of social isolation and loneliness varies among individuals. The factors contributing to feelings of loneliness and isolation differ depending on the stage of life and can be associated with specific events or enduring circumstances. Studies indicate that the patterns of social engagement that influence loneliness in old age often have roots established as early as 20 years prior. Additionally, having a spouse or partner plays a significant role in mitigating feelings of loneliness (Sandu et al., 2021).

Additionally, these loneliness and social isolation are associated with the social problem ‘lonely death (or solitary death)’. Lonely death, being defined a death of a person disconnected from the people around them dies alone, and the body is found after a certain period, is becoming more and more significant as the number of one-person households is on the rise. It was mainly a problem related with the elderly in the past, however, with the trend of increasing people living alone, the issue of dying alone is currently becoming matter of concern among all age groups from single-person households with deepening social disconnection and poverty among them (Yoo et al., 2022).

Meanwhile, the detrimental effects on physical and mental health resulting from social isolation and loneliness lead to a higher demand for health and social care services, resulting in significant costs for healthcare systems. Recognizing the importance of addressing social isolation and loneliness has become a prominent issue for policymakers in the health and social care sectors, especially with the aging of populations. Policy measures aimed at identifying, preventing, and reducing social isolation and loneliness have gained considerable attention in this regard (Marczak et al., 2019).

3. UK: Loneliness policies

3.1. Policy background

The UK government seems to have paid much more attention to mental aspects of being alone such as loneliness and social isolation and has been the frontrunner for policies to address these issues.

The British Parliament has been running a committee to deal with the issue of loneliness in society, led by the late Labour MP Jo Cox, pointing out harmful impact of loneliness. Prior to her election as the Labour MP in 2015, Jo Cox, who had a history of working for charities dealing with issues such as poverty, social discrimination, violence, and maternal death, began to pay attention to the issue of loneliness after she was elected as a member of Parliament. With her own experience of severe loneliness in college and many local residents' suffering from loneliness she had witnessed in her constituency, she began to actively inform that anyone can be lonely, the damage caused by loneliness is real and persistent, and that loneliness is a major social problem in British society. Based on the belief that to actively respond to the loneliness problem, individuals, communities, and businesses, as well as governments and charities, she formed a bipartisan committee with Conservative lawmaker Seema Kennedy and tried to form a broad policy network that encompasses charities, for-profit and government organizations (Yu et al., 2021).

After the MP was murdered by a far-right man in 2016, a "Jo Cox Commission on Loneliness" was established in 2017 to honor her. Through the commission’s report on loneliness, “Combatting loneliness one conversation at a time: A call to action”, it emphasized the seriousness of loneliness issue and presented detailed policy recommendations, which include:

National Leardership: Despite cooperation of individuals, families, communities, charities, businesses, and local authorities to connect people, the collective effort of these entities can be greatly enhanced by uniting them and revitalizing their actions. Although the central government cannot single-handedly solve loneliness, it can contribute by bringing together important stakeholders, stimulating action, evaluating, and comparing advancements, and ensuring accountability for those responsible for taking action;

Measurable Progress: To effectively address loneliness and social isolation, it is crucial to gather better data on its impact and target those affected. Communities and individuals should have the necessary tools and information to prevent loneliness and access support when needed;

Catalyzing Action: Although there are commendable examples of initiatives and services across the country, numerous communities still lack sufficient opportunities for social connection. Additionally, many individuals find themselves isolated and unable to build or sustain relationships, leaving them trapped in a state of loneliness. Allocating a modest investment to assist chronically lonely individuals in initiating reconnection could provide them with the necessary skills and support to foster lifelong connections (Jo Cox Commission, 2017).

As a support agency, the Loneliness Action Group, led by the British Red Cross and Co-op partnership, was tasked by the Jo Cox Commission on Loneliness partners, focusing particularly on action to carry on the commission's work to tackle loneliness. To do this, it brings government, charities, businesses and public sector leaders together to develop meaningful solutions and decision-making on loneliness across the UK. At the same time, the agency plays a role as a secretariat for “All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Loneliness”, which is a non-partisan organization of lawmakers supporting loneliness-related legislation (British Red Cross, no date).

These activities of both the late MP Jo Cox and Jo Cox Commission had a decisive impact on the preparation of government-led loneliness policies and strategies in England. In addition, the policy recommendations of the Commission had a profound impact on later governments' comprehensive and systematic loneliness-related policies (Yu et al., 2021).

In January 2018, the former Prime Minister, Theresa May, announced that the government had initiated efforts to develop a nationwide strategy to combat loneliness. The Office for National Statistics (ONS) was tasked with establishing a framework for measuring loneliness, and plans were made to allocate new funds for innovative solutions, provide seed funding for community initiatives, and expand existing projects. The responsibilities of the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Sport and Civil Society were expanded to include addressing loneliness, earning the title "Minister for Loneliness." Loneliness was also added to the portfolios of ministers in various departments, including Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, Department for Transport, Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, and Department of Health and Social Care. In August 2018, the government released its Civil society strategy, aimed at providing support to key members of civil society who would contribute to initiatives addressing loneliness (Macdonald et al., 2021).

3.2. National strategy to resolve loneliness: Roles and Actions

As a result of these all-encompassing cooperation from various sectors, a national strategy to resolve loneliness was established and implanted in 2018-2019 (Kim et al., 2022), and a comprehensive plan was finally launched in 2020, with the start of the national lockdown due to the Covid-19. Under the three objectives - reducing stigma, driving a lasting shift across society, and improving the evidence base on loneliness - the plan includes specific action strategies such as categorizing loneliness as a priority of charity funding package, refreshing of government campaign ‘Let’s Talk Loneliness’, and organizing a new Tackling Loneliness Network embracing private/public sector and charities (GOV.UK, no date).

Addressing loneliness and fostering social connections necessitates collective action from various stakeholders including government, local authorities, businesses, and the voluntary sector. These entities have an opportunity to incorporate considerations regarding loneliness into their respective domains. Additionally, the responsibility falls upon communities, families, and individuals to play a role in this endeavor (DCMS, 2018).

This strategy acknowledges the existence of influential organizations within each sector that are already actively combating loneliness and promoting social cohesion, highlighting specific exemplary initiatives undertaken by these entities. Throughout the strategy, the government emphasizes the importance of their continued dedication and encourages others to emulate their approaches. Collaboration among these entities becomes imperative to effectively implement personalized and localized approaches to tackling loneliness (DCMS, 2018).

Firstly, the central government is expected to take the role of providing national leadership on this agenda. It intends to introduce a consistent measure for assessing loneliness and develop a comprehensive campaign to promote the significance of maintaining social well-being. Furthermore, the government commits to ensuring the effective implementation of the strategy by closely collaborating with the Loneliness Action Group and its members. This collaborative effort aims to implement the policies outlined in the strategy and utilize relevant insights and learnings (DCMS, 2018).

The strategy also calls upon local authorities to incorporate measures to tackle loneliness into their strategic planning and decision-making processes concerning community well-being. Many local authorities have already taken the lead in addressing loneliness by recognizing its significance through Health and Wellbeing boards, engaging with local communities and civil society organizations, and addressing practical concerns regarding community spaces and transportation (DCMS, 2018).

The strategy also emphasizes roles and actions of other sectors. Health and other public services can prioritize social well-being by identifying and supporting those at risk of loneliness. They can also enhance cross-sector connections and share best practices. At the same time, all employers, including businesses, should support employees' social well-being within and outside the workplace. They can provide community spaces and adopt the strategies outlined in the strategy. The voluntary sector plays a vital role in fostering communities, challenging isolation, and equipping people with the tools to address loneliness. More importantly, the solution to loneliness could lie in the active involvement of families, friends, faith groups, and communities, embracing inclusivity and reaching out to others. Communities can foster resilience by creating opportunities for social interaction, including marginalized groups, and promoting connections across diverse backgrounds (DCMS, 2018).

Figure 2: Roles and actions of loneliness policies

(Source: DDCMS (2018), A connected society: A Strategy for tackling loneliness – laying the foundations for change, p. 19.)

3.3. National Strategy to resolve loneliness: Objectives

The national strategy encompasses three key objectives:

Decreasing stigma by fostering a nationwide dialogue about loneliness, creating an environment where individuals feel comfortable discussing their experiences and seeking assistance;

Facilitating a lasting transformation by ensuring that relationships and loneliness are integral considerations in policymaking and implementation across various sectors. This involves supporting and amplifying the efforts of organizations that focus on connecting people;

Enhancing the knowledge base on loneliness, presenting a compelling rationale for action, and ensuring that individuals have access to relevant information to make informed decisions during difficult periods. This includes a commitment to improving the evidence surrounding loneliness and its effects (GOV.UK, 2023).

3.4. Loneliness strategy in detail and its progress since 2018

3.4.1. Reducing Stigma

Loneliness can be accompanied by feelings of embarrassment or shame. Some people who feel lonely could wonder if they are to blame, while others could worry that sharing their feelings and asking for support would burden others (GOV.UK, 2023). England seems to have a culture of restraining emotional expression, tends to endure difficulties or inconveniences, and English people are educated to suppress direct emotional expression accordingly, tending to regard it as a virtue not to show emotions in the process of communication with others (Yu et al., 2021). Reducing stigma seems to be prioritized as a main objective of the strategy with these cultural contexts.

From 2019 to 2021, the Let's Talk Loneliness campaign led by the government reached a significant number of individuals, urging them to proactively address loneliness for themselves and others. Collaborating with various organizations such as Royal Mail and ITV, the campaign aimed to diminish the social stigma associated with loneliness (GOV.UK, 2023).

In 2022, the campaign efforts were integrated into the existing Better Health: Every Mind Matters campaign. The initial phase of this integration centered on providing support to young individuals aged 18-24 in "Lifting Someone Out of Loneliness" through straightforward actions aimed at helping those experiencing loneliness. This approach was informed by insights revealing that this particular age group faces a heightened risk of loneliness while being less inclined to take proactive measures (GOV.UK, 2023).

In the 2021-22 period, the Loneliness Engagement Fund allocated a total of over £260,000 through nine grants to assist vulnerable groups in England that were significantly impacted by loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic. These groups encompassed young adults, LGBT individuals, and people living with low health conditions. The funded projects, led by a variety of organizations such as the Jo Cox Foundation, Mencap, the British Deafness Association, the National Autistic Society, and the National Youth Theatre, incorporated communication and engagement initiatives. These endeavors aimed to gain valuable insights into the challenges faced by these groups and identify effective strategies to overcome them (GOV.UK, 2023).

3.4.2. Driving a lasting shift

From the onset of the loneliness strategy, many government departments and other sectors have been collaborated to build a more connected society, where people can thrive enjoying relationships (GOV.UK, 2023).

Since 2018, the UK government has been at the forefront globally in addressing loneliness. They have brought together a diverse and extensive Tackling Loneliness Network, consisting of nearly 150 organizations from the public, private, and charity sectors, all dedicated to combating loneliness. The Network's Action Plan has been integrated into the ongoing efforts of government departments and collaborative organizations, which includes the creation of the Tackling Loneliness Champions Group, the Social Connection Funders Group, and the Tackling Loneliness Hub. (GOV.UK, 2023).

In order to increase the availability of volunteer opportunities and social prescribing, as well as implement the Tackling Loneliness with Transport Fund, several governmental departments, such as the Department of Health and Social Care, the Department for Education, and the Department for Transport, have maintained their collaboration. Additionally, the UK government has utilized its global standing to foster connections and exchange best practice with Japan, Denmark, Sweden, and the United States (GOV.UK, 2023).

"Social prescribing" is considered a keyword in England's loneliness policy. It is a connecting program that links institutions to use various services that support the social, emotional, or living needs of clients, employing 'Link Workers' that acts as a mediator to receive clients from local institutions including GPs. Link workers, along with commissioned clients, develop appropriate plans to meet each individual's well-being needs (Yu et al., 2021). The link worker and the individual collaborate to develop a personalized plan that aligns with the individual's priorities. This plan aims to connect the person with local community groups, services, and support. Social prescribing goes beyond simply providing information about resources; it empowers individuals to proactively seek support and actively participate in their communities (DCMS, 2018). Social prescribing has demonstrated positive results for individuals and has the potential to alleviate strain on the NHS. For instance, research has shown that effective implementation of the social prescribing connector service led to an average reduction of 28% in GP consultations and a 24% decrease in A&E visits (DCMS, 2018).

Additionally, the £5.77 million cross-government initiative called 'Preventing and tackling mental ill-health through green social prescribing' was introduced in 2020 to explore ways to enhance the utilization and engagement with the natural environment as a means of improving mental health through referrals to green (and/or blue) social prescribing. To date, the program has generated more than 6,000 referrals to various activities. (GOV.UK, 2023).

Funding or financial support has been another important factor for driving a lasting shift of loneliness policies.

One such measure is the Loneliness COVID-19 Fund, which was launched in June 2020 and received an additional £2 million in December 2020, along with supplementary funding for arts, radio, and libraries. Furthermore, as part of the government's £750 million charity funding package, a total of £34 million was granted to organizations implementing projects aimed at addressing loneliness in 2020 (GOV.UK, 2021).

The Volunteering Futures Fund, introduced in November 2021 by DCMS in collaboration with Arts Council England, Pears Foundation, and NHS Charities Together, is a £7 million initiative aimed at increasing people's access to diverse volunteering opportunities across various sectors, including arts and sports. As a result of this funding, over 160 community organizations are currently being supported to create 7,800 new volunteering opportunities between the years 2022 and 2024 (GOV.UK, 2023).

The Know Your Neighbourhood Fund, launched in early 2023, with funding from the government and the National Lottery Community Fund, aims to reduce chronic loneliness and promote volunteering in 27 disadvantaged areas in England. With a budget of up to £30 million, the fund creates volunteering opportunities in local museums, libraries, and arts groups, while also connecting communities through projects related to their high streets (GOV.UK, 2023).

There is also an online program to support people working to address loneliness. The Tackling Loneliness Hub, launched in June 2021 and funded by DCMS, is an online community managed by the Campaign to End Loneliness. It serves as a platform for professionals involved in addressing loneliness to connect, collaborate, and share research and insights. The Hub welcomes individuals from various sectors and represents over 430 members from over 300 organizations, including frontline delivery professionals, policy advisors, researchers, and local authorities. It organizes workshops throughout the year to facilitate knowledge-sharing, skill development, and networking opportunities. Topics covered include workplace loneliness, befriending, evaluation of loneliness interventions, outreach and engagement, creating welcoming spaces, and effective communication strategies (GOV.UK, 2023).

3.4.3. Expanding the evidence base

Building an evidence base on loneliness enabling better understanding about loneliness, its impact and how it is experienced might be crucial for organizations and policymakers to do decision making based on more robust evidence (GOV.UK, 2023).

The prevalence of chronic loneliness among adults (16+) in England has remained stable at 6% over the past five years, as indicated by data from the Community Life Survey. However, since 2018, there has been an improved understanding of the specific groups that are more vulnerable to experiencing chronic loneliness. In 2018, a new national measure of loneliness was introduced with the goal of gathering more consistent and comprehensive data on loneliness. The Office for National Statistics (ONS) published a comprehensive set of information on measuring loneliness, and the What Works for Wellbeing Centre subsequently developed methodological guidance to assist charities and social enterprises in utilizing these measurement tools. This guidance aids organizations in assessing the effectiveness of their interventions in reducing loneliness among individuals (GOV.UK, 2023).

The harmonized ONS loneliness measure has become a data indicator within the Public Health Outcomes Framework and has been incorporated into 11 government surveys. Data has been gathered in five more surveys, including the Active Lives Survey, Understanding Society, and the Student COVID-19 Insights Survey (GOV.UK, 2023).

In 2021, the government established the Tackling Loneliness Evidence Group, which aimed to gather expertise and insights from experts and academics in the field of loneliness. In 2022, the Group released an evidence review that offers a comprehensive overview of the existing evidence while identifying gaps that need further research. The intention is to update this review annually to incorporate the most recent findings and advancements in research on loneliness (GOV.UK, 2023).

3.4.4. Future Plan (GOV.UK, 2023)

To reduce stigma around loneliness, the government is dedicated to sustaining a nationwide dialogue about loneliness for better understanding of the stigma by means of our public outreach campaign. Collaborating with partners as a part of the Better Health: Every Mind Matters initiative, the government will persistently emphasize to individuals that experiencing loneliness is acceptable. This year policy focus has been broadened to include young individuals between the ages of 16 and 34, aiming to motivate and empower them to take proactive measures to assist both themselves and others. Additionally, research to investigate the connection between stigma and loneliness, its impact on individuals, and strategies to diminish is ongoing.

For a consistent policy drive, the government will persist in adopting a cross-sector approach in cooperation with local authorities, health organizations, businesses, and non-profit sectors. The objective is to ensure that day-to-day services we rely on are designed to link marginalized groups and individuals vulnerable to loneliness with the necessary support. By doing so, the aim is to minimize adverse physical and mental health consequences, including the risk of suicide. Studies indicate that certain groups, such as young people and disabled individuals, are disproportionately affected by loneliness, and in specific regions of the country, there may be additional barriers to accessing support.

To achieve these goals, the Department for Culture, Media, and Sport, in collaboration with Arm's Length Bodies including the National Lottery Community Fund, Arts Council England, and the National Lottery Heritage Fund, as well as UK Community Foundations, will administer the Know Your Neighbourhood Fund. This fund, with a potential allocation of up to £30 million, aims to enhance well-being and community pride by promoting impactful volunteer work and addressing chronic loneliness in disadvantaged areas targeted for support.

Libraries Connected will also play a role by distributing £2.5 million to approximately 26 library services. These funds will be used to develop, pilot, evaluate, and share services that effectively reduce loneliness and expand volunteering opportunities. Over the next two years, libraries, in collaboration with other cultural and community organizations, will organize customized events such as family activities for young children, as well as structured activities that bridge generational and demographic gaps, such as "craft and chat" and "knit and natter" sessions. These initiatives aim to combat loneliness and reduce social anxiety within local communities.

The Department of Health and Social Care will enhance the understanding of the relationship between loneliness and suicide, as well as the effective approaches to addressing it. In the development of the 2023 Suicide Prevention Strategy, various risk factors, including loneliness, will be taken into account. Simultaneously, the Disability Unit is formulating a communication strategy to promote social connections and raise awareness about loneliness among disabled individuals, coinciding with Loneliness Awareness Week.

In line with the government's strategy to reform children's social care, the Department for Education (DfE) is fully committed to significantly increasing support to ensure that children and young people in care have strong and nurturing relationships by 2027. As part of this commitment, the DfE will allocate over £30 million within the next two years to significantly expand the presence of family finding, mentoring, and befriending programs in local authorities.

To improve evidence base on loneliness, each governmental department takes their own roles.

The DCMS will persist in examining the influence of stigma on loneliness. Through ongoing research, they aim to explore the various perspectives and communication surrounding loneliness among different groups. The research will delve into the emotional obstacles that hinder individuals from seeking help for themselves and identify effective strategies to reduce the stigma experienced by those facing chronic loneliness. Additionally, they will collaborate with the What Works Centre for Wellbeing to investigate existing interventions and determine their efficacy in addressing loneliness.

In 2025, the Department of Health and Social Care will release assessments of both the primary care social prescribing model and the implementation of social prescribing in the National Health Service (NHS). Furthermore, they will actively seek to commission research that explores the connections between loneliness and self-harm as well as suicide. On the other hand, the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs will publish the evaluation of the green social prescribing program in 2023, aiming to provide evidence of effective strategies. Additionally, the Department for Transport will publish the evaluation of the £5 million Tackling Loneliness with Transport Fund in the autumn of 2023. This evaluation aims to shed light on how transportation policies can contribute to reducing loneliness among various groups, including carers, disabled individuals, veterans, people living with dementia, individuals with visual impairments, those with learning disabilities, and individuals living with autism.

3.5. Other programs

In addition to loneliness strategies, various programs are being implemented across the UK through public or nonprofit organizations, as well as through public-private collaborations, to address loneliness and social isolation. Here are a few noteworthy programs to consider.

The LinkAge National Programme UK

The LinkAge National Programme UK is an initiative designed to foster connections among individuals, groups, and organizations by facilitating the exchange of knowledge, experience, and skills from older people to the community. The program has established "community hubs," each overseen by a local advisory board. In addition to sharing their own experiences and skills, older individuals have the opportunity to learn new ones, such as participating in yoga and cooking classes, joining choirs, engaging in archery and sports, or taking IT classes. An internal qualitative evaluation of the program indicated that it enhances people's sense of connection, improves their well-being, and encourages increased physical activity. Furthermore, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the LinkAge site created a dedicated page to provide older individuals with information and support related to protection, vaccinations, and assistance for those who may be isolated during the challenging time (Sandu et al., 2021).

Men in Shed

The 'Men in Sheds' initiative aims to address loneliness among men of all ages by providing a dedicated space where they can gather and collaborate on practical projects as a group, such as woodworking, metalworking, and electronics. The primary objective is to foster connectedness, cultivate friendships, and facilitate the exchange of skills. Presently, approximately 400 men are involved in this initiative, represented by a non-profit organization. Participants have reported positive outcomes, including improved communication, a sense of purpose, a feeling of belonging, and increased independence (Sandu et al., 2021).

Digital Angels / DigitalSenior

Digital Angels is a comprehensive program that merges online and offline sessions for both individuals and groups, covering a wide range of subjects with the goal of enhancing independence, communication, and mobility. It establishes interest groups to foster connections among older individuals, while support groups are comprised of diverse professionals. On the other hand, DigitalSenior focuses specifically on enhancing the digital proficiency of seniors, enabling them to effectively communicate and access support using online tools (Sandu et al., 2021).

Rural Coffe Connect (RCC)

RCC is a charity organization dedicated to addressing inequalities in rural areas, focusing on issues such as loneliness, social isolation, poor mental health, suicide, unemployment, and the decline of services in rural facilities. Since 2019, Rural Coffee Connect has been operating in rural Leicestershire and Rutland, providing a mobile and welcoming space known as the 'coffee van' where people can gather, have a coffee, engage in conversations, and foster connections within their community. Initially supported by the National Lottery Community Fund, Rural Coffee Connect was launched as an initiative aimed at addressing loneliness and isolation prevalent in rural areas. In addition to utilizing the coffee van as a means to connect the community, RCC also provided free educational sessions to raise awareness about loneliness and offer support measures for individuals at risk (Kim et al., 2022; RCC, no date).

Happy Cab

Leeds Older People's Forum partnered with Bramley Elderly Action to utilize the Tacking Loneliness with Transport Fund from the Department for Transport. This collaboration enabled the purchase of an electric taxi known as the Happy Cab, which serves as a bookable community transport vehicle for forum members. The Happy Cab offers a convenient door-to-door service, allowing passengers to reach their destinations while engaging in friendly conversations along the way. All drivers have undergone specialized 'Happiness Training' to ensure a positive and welcoming environment for passengers. Encouraging journey sharing, the service provides opportunities for passengers to meet new people from their local area and socialize. This addition to the existing minibus provision facilitates increased access to revitalized community groups throughout the city for older individuals (GOV.UK, 2023).

4. Loneliness Policies of European countries

There is a noticeable increase in public awareness and concern regarding the issues of loneliness and isolation in other European countries as well as the UK (Marczak et al., 2019).

The growing population of older individuals in Europe is contributing to the heightened attention given to loneliness and isolation issues. This is influenced by factors such as the aging baby boomer generation and extended life spans. It is crucial for the well-being of older people and their families that the duration of social isolation, loneliness, and disability decreases rather than increases as life expectancy continues to rise (Marczak et al., 2019).

Over the last decade, the exploration of successful approaches throughout Europe has revealed the development of strategies from both bottom-up (grassroots) and top-town (governmental) levels. These interventions and initiatives vary in scale, ranging from comprehensive programs implemented across multiple regions to smaller local initiatives aimed at promoting the involvement of specific target populations within communities. Nationally, countries like France, the UK, and the Netherlands have introduced strategies explicitly targeting loneliness reduction, while others have addressed related concerns within broader national frameworks such as active ageing, dementia strategies, policies addressing informal caregivers, or programs emphasizing intergenerational exchange (Sandu et al., 2021).

Numerous grassroots efforts can be observed at the regional and local levels, including innovative forms of volunteering, befriending programs, and increased civic engagement within neighborhoods. Additionally, the development of new information and communication technologies has introduced tools that can support individual strategies as well as local, regional, and national initiatives. An interesting observation in both public and civil society endeavors is that successful leadership often stems from individual commitment. Prioritizing the reinforcement of such individuals through structural support and policies that promote social cohesion should be a key focus. This approach serves as a general preventive measure to combat loneliness and social isolation, emphasizing the significance of fostering opportunities to build social capital throughout one's entire life journey (Sandu et al., 2021).

Additionally, several initiatives have arisen that leverage technologies to assist older individuals who are experiencing isolation. These initiatives focus on various aspects, such as enhancing access to information and resources, facilitating family communication, supporting caregivers, promoting mobility, and expanding social networks. The digitization of support measures can serve as a solution to enhance communication and integration. However, it is important to note that relying solely on digital interactions may inadvertently reduce human contact and exacerbate isolation. Therefore, a balanced approach that combines both digital and in-person or group measures should be considered when working with assistive technologies (Sandu et al., 2021).

4.1. France

MONALISA

MONALISA is a French national program aimed at reducing social isolation and loneliness among older individuals. This program encourages the active involvement of professionals, family members, and volunteers in promoting communal living and reciprocity. It mobilizes volunteers and establishes citizen teams (équipes citoyennes) to identify isolated older individuals and provide them with appropriate support. The support provided by these citizen teams varies based on individual needs and may include accompanying them to hospitals or markets, assisting with administrative matters and paperwork, as well as offering personal companionship. The program also offers a national platform for training and exchange among citizen teams to facilitate the sharing of local experiences and inform national policies. Various solutions and initiatives to reach and support isolated older people are being tested and replicated if successful. As of 2019, there were approximately 287 registered citizen teams, 63 territorial partnerships contributing to volunteer mobilization, and 474 organizations that signed up for the MONALISA Charter. During the COVID-19 crisis, the program was adapted to cater to the specific needs of older individuals, resulting in the establishment of two additional activities: assistance for vulnerable isolated individuals (providing support for their various needs) and proximity solidarity (enhanced online communication with isolated elderly individuals) (Sandu et al., 2021).

SnapMiam / Yvelines-Etudiants Seniors

SnapMiam is a mobile application that facilitates connections between older individuals who provide meals and students who are interested in purchasing them. Through this app, students and older people can meet and enjoy a shared meal together. Yvelines-Etudiants Seniors is another mobile application that acts as a platform connecting older individuals with young people, specifically high school and university students. These students are employed by the community council to offer communication and support services to the older population (Sandu et al., 2021).

4.2. Switzerland: The KISS

The KISS program is a Swiss initiative designed to encourage and support the establishment of cooperatives that operate a non-monetary time-banking system. The program aims to provide additional incentives for volunteering. It has created several cooperatives, which serve as public meeting places throughout the country, where individuals in need and those offering their services can meet and engage in various activities such as communication, gardening, and shopping together. Professionals are also involved in the program to enhance the autonomous organization and ensure that the support provided aligns with the needs of the beneficiaries. What sets this program apart is that volunteers earn time-credits that can be later redeemed for their own needs. Currently, there are approximately 10 local cooperatives spread across the country. An evaluation of the program revealed that each cooperative gathered around 200 members, with approximately 50% actively participating as time-givers, contributing an average of about 1,500 hours per year per site. The program has helped individuals delay the transition to residential care, while also increasing regular social contact for both the time-givers and time-consumers (Sandu et al., 2021).

4.3. Ireland: The Befriending Networks Ireland

The Befriending Networks Ireland is a program specifically developed to provide assistance to older individuals who are experiencing loneliness and isolation. It operates by arranging weekly visits and phone calls from trained volunteers. These volunteers visit the older people in their homes once a week, offering companionship, and call them daily to alleviate loneliness. They also provide support in coordinating various services that may be required, such as medical appointments, housing assistance, and social welfare-related matters. Referrals to the program can come from professionals, family members, neighbors, or even self-referrals. The program utilizes a national online system called ALONE, which helps connect individuals on both ends to the program. Across the country, approximately 60 Member Organizations have been established as part of this initiative. An external evaluation of the program indicated that a greater proportion of older persons reported feeling less lonely after participating in the program. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns, a dedicated helpline was launched to provide support (Sandu et al., 2021).

4.4. Netherlands

The Buurtcirkel Neighbourhood Circles Netherlands

This initiative aims to create small communities consisting of 9-12 individuals living in the same neighborhood, each residing in their own home, who can offer mutual support to one another. The group members collaborate by accompanying each other to appointments, assisting with shopping, and more. To ensure professional support, each group is assigned a neighborhood coach. Local authorities, non-profit organizations, and charities provide backing for this program. Additionally, some organizations extend their support to assist other regional initiatives in implementing similar programs (Sandu et al., 2021).

Friendship Enrichment Program

This program entails a series of 12 group lessons conducted weekly, focusing on topics such as self-esteem, relational competence, phases of friendship formation, and social skills. As a result of participating in this program, there was a notable decrease in feelings of loneliness within a year. This reduction in loneliness was achieved through a combination of establishing new friendships and enhancing existing ones, leading to a greater sense of connectedness (Marczak et al., 2019).

4.5. Poland: The Polish Rządowy Program

The Polish Rządowy Program is designed to facilitate social engagement among older individuals who have physical disabilities. This program offers a range of workshops, classes, and training courses specifically tailored to the needs of older people. These activities take place in a comfortable and accessible environment, and transportation services are provided to ensure easy access. In an effort to further engage and connect older individuals, radio programs have been created specifically for them and are broadcasted by Polish radio stations. Additionally, sponsored competitions and senior clubs are regularly organized, providing opportunities for social interaction and participation for older people with disabilities (Sandu et al., 2021).

4.6. Finland: The Circle of Friends

The Circle of Friends is a Finnish model centered around occupational therapy that aims to support older individuals, including those residing in residential facilities, in establishing meaningful connections and combating loneliness. It operates as a closed group where members gather regularly. A trained facilitator guides each group, fostering self-support and personal connections among the participants. This facilitator can be a healthcare or social care professional, as well as a volunteer who has completed specialized training. The volunteer training is structured around six pillars, including understanding closed group dynamics, targeted learning, active participation, peer support, empowerment, and the promotion of self-efficacy. An evaluation of this intervention revealed that the interactions within the Circle of Friends were highly meaningful to the beneficiaries, fostering a greater sense of connection among participants. The group model was found to be effective in alleviating loneliness, particularly in residential settings. Additionally, during the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns, the Circle of Friends program implemented a special module of support measures to address the challenges faced during this period (Sandu et al., 2021).

4.7. Sweden: Co-living

Sweden is a country in Europe with a high proportion of single-person households, which increases the likelihood of experiencing loneliness despite the prevalence of individual social and financial independence. As a result, there have been campaigns advocating for the appointment of a loneliness minister by the government, and recently, discussions about co-living have been actively taking place. One notable example of co-living started with Hus 24, one of the townhouses in Stockholm, and in 2019, COLIVE opened its first co-living residence for 11 individuals in Södermalm (Kim et al., 2022).

5. Korea: Policies for Single-person household and lonely death

5.1. Single-person household policies

Unlike the UK focusing on addressing problems regarding loneliness and social isolation, Korea has been putting an emphasis on the issue of increasing single-person households.

In Korea, an increase of one-person households has been likely to be noticed widely since early 2010s. As the number of people living alone strikingly increases and social phenomena such as huge popularity of me-media focusing on eating delicious food alone (and much) called ‘Mukbang’ and an entertainment show named ‘I Live Alone’ covering celebrities living on their own appears, one-person household issue gradually began to be noticed by policymakers.

With the beginning of the enactment of framework ordinance (the country’s first enactment) and the basic plan developed accordingly pertaining to single-person households by Seoul Metropolitan Government in 2016 and 2019 respectively, other local governments have started establishing similar ordinance to support one-person households, and began implementing discrete programs on municipal level, mainly targeting safety or sharing economy for single people such as emergency bell installment and shared kitchen (Kim et al., 2022).

It might be when one of the promising mayoral candidates for Seoul who had brought measures for single-person households to the forefront and started to make policies in full scale after being elected as the mayor in 2021 that the necessity of policies regarding one-person households became noticed on a national level. The Seoul city government set up a taskforce in April 2021 to discover difficulties and predicaments of single-person households and to develop policies for them, and in early 2022 it announced its comprehensive plan to support one-person households living in the city. As the first comprehensive plan in Korea, it is containing four ‘security’ policies regarding health, safety, isolation and housing with respect key programs: ‘hospital accompanying services’, ‘town security sheriff’, ‘life management and dialogue service with AI’ and ‘customized housing for single-person households’. (Seoul in My Hand, 2022).

In Korea, it is not uncommon policies started in Seoul, a metropolitan with one fourth of whole population of the Korea, are accepted by other local governments and central government to be applied for the whole country, with the city’s great influence for the entire nation (i.e., mayors of Seoul are often considered potential presidential candidates). For the single-person household policies, similarly as well, the capital’s policy response and specific programs seem to have widely been reflected by municipal and central governments.

There seems no overall plan regarding single-person households at national level by central department so far, however, according to a government report regarding mid- to long-term policy direction announced in 2020, the government has prepared policy tasks in five areas: income/care, housing, safety, social networks, and consumption ('solo economy') to preemptively respond to economic and social changes caused by the increase in one-person households and to improve the quality of life due to poverty and social isolation of people living alone (Joint Government Offices, 2020). Plans and policies of the central government might matter more than those of local authorities, as some tasks mentioned in the report such as reform of the National Basic Livelihood Security Act and modification of Public Rental Housing can be covered at the national level only, which may play a crucial role for overall single-person household policies.

5.2. Lonely death policies

In Korea, there are no wide-ranging policies for all ages, such as loneliness or social isolation, like in the UK, but regional policies on loneliness are starting at a rudimentary level based on the increase in single-person households or awareness of lonely deaths. Some local governments, such as Busan and Daegu, stipulate the policy goal of alleviating loneliness experienced by all residents or high-risk groups such as marginalized and disconnected single-person households and improving their quality of life (Yu et al., 2021).

The "Ordinance for the Healing of Loneliness and the Promotion of Happiness for Busan Citizens" enacted by Busan Metropolitan City is the first loneliness ordinance in the country that focuses on the healing of loneliness, not on the prevention of lonely deaths or support for single-person households. This ordinance stipulates the establishment and implementation of Busan's plan to heal loneliness and promote happiness, the development of indicators to measure loneliness, the establishment and operation of a healing center to heal loneliness and promote happiness.

Presently, ordinances related to social isolation or loneliness are in effect, among the metropolitan and provincial governments, in Busan and Gyeongsangbuk-do, and among basic local governments, in Suseong-gu (Daegu), Gunsan, Tongyeong, and Hoengseong.

Meanwhile, the "1st Master Plan for Preventing Lonely Deaths (2023-2027)," announced by the government in May, even though it does not explicitly include the terms "loneliness" or "social isolation" in its title, places great importance on addressing the issues of loneliness and social isolation. This is because solitary deaths can occur as a result of chronic and prolonged loneliness or social isolation. Therefore, the plan recognizes the significance of addressing the problems of loneliness and social isolation.

Social isolation and disconnection have intensified recently in Korea due to changes in the family structure centered on single-person households, the spread of individualistic culture, and the prolonged pandemic. As a result, the problem of solitary death, which is found after a certain period of time, continues to increase without anyone's help. According to the government's first survey on lonely deaths conducted in 2022, the number of lonely deaths in Korea in 2021 was 3,378, which has been on the rise over the past five years (an average annual increase rate of 8.8%), and social awareness needs to be raised accordingly. In addition, as a result of a sample survey of single-person households, the number of risk groups for lonely death in Korea is estimated to be about 1.52 million, and the crisis factors by life cycle are different (MOHW, 2023).

According to research finding of OECD regarding the quality of social network in 2022, 80% of people recognize that they know someone to rely on in time of need, which is lower than the OECD average (91%), Japan (89%) and the UK (93%) (OECD, 2022).

Figure 3: Ranking of Korea in OECD index related to social network

(Source: OECD, 「Better Life Index 2022」)

With the aim of reducing the ratio of solitary deaths per 100 individuals compared to total deaths by 20% by 2027 (from 1.06 in 2021 to 0.85 in 2027), the government intends to leverage all available workforce and resource networks to enhance the identification and support of individuals at high risk of lonely deaths. As part of the plan, the government will train "lonely death prevention gatekeepers" who will be responsible for identifying individuals at high risk of lonely deaths during their daily activities. Surveys will be conducted in areas particularly susceptible to lonely deaths to identify groups of people at high risk. Additionally, a model will be developed to collect information and identify individuals prone to a crisis of lonely death based on the characteristics of these high-risk groups (MOHW, 2023).

Furthermore, the government will broaden the existing pilot project aimed at preventing and addressing lonely deaths, which is currently being carried out in select regions. This expansion aims to tackle social isolation among high-risk groups by offering region-specific services tailored to their needs. Additionally, integrated welfare services will be provided throughout the various stages of life to address factors that contribute to life crises, such as healthcare and employment (MOHW, 2023).

To enhance monitoring and management of high-risk groups, the government will establish a comprehensive information system specifically for lonely deaths. Additionally, there will be an increase in the number of integrated case managers employed by local governments, dedicated to this task. Furthermore, the government will designate "social isolation prevention and support centers" at both national and regional levels, aiming to establish a collaborative system between the public and private sector for preventing and managing high-risk groups effectively. Also, to ensure the government's strong evidence-based policymaking, the survey cycle for lonely deaths has been shortened from five years to one. This adjustment enables the government to gather precise annual statistics on lonely deaths and assess the service requirements of individuals at risk. (MOHW, 2023).

Among the four strategies implemented for the plan, two are directly related to the prevention of lonely deaths, while the remaining two focus on strengthening connections to alleviate social isolation and providing coordinated support based on the life cycle.

Firstly, the strategy for strengthened connectivity incudes:

Operation of Community Spaces: By creating community spaces, particularly in areas vulnerable to lonely deaths, diverse exchange programs are facilitated. Utilizing cultural facilities such as libraries and community centers, the support includes providing counseling services, as well as programs related to arts, sports, and cultural activities;

Formation of Social Networks: By utilizing regional family centers, various communication, exchange, and mutual support activities are supported for individuals in single-person households according to their life stages. Through strengthening the role of social welfare institutions, support is provided to facilitate the formation of social networks among socially isolated residents in the community. In particular, efforts are made to empower socially isolated households not only as beneficiaries but also as participants playing an active role to connect the community and prevent lonely deaths;

Utilization of IT/AI Technology: By leveraging interactive artificial intelligence technology from the private sector, regular welfare check phone calls are provided to risk groups, offering psychological support. AI is trained to learn the usual usage patterns of the at-risk individuals in terms of electricity, communication, water supply, and other utilities. In case of sudden changes indicating an emergency, efforts are made to confirm their well-being through welfare check calls (MOHW, 2023).

Services tailored to different life stages are provided, targeting youth, middle-aged, and elderly populations at risk. Among the lonely deaths that occurred in 2021, the suicide rates for individuals in their 20s and 30s were exceptionally high at 56.6% and 40.2% respectively. The youth at risk identified emotional anxiety and economic problems as their most challenging issues. Therefore, for the youth at risk, a customized service support plan is developed through surveys on isolated/secluded young individuals, and efforts are made to strengthen emotional and employment support according to their needs. Middle-aged individuals, who accounted for the highest proportion (58.8%) of lonely deaths in 2021, identified economic and social relationship issues as important. For this group, services focusing on various daily life management issues such as health management, safety, household chores, reemployment, and social relationships will be enhanced. Additionally, for the elderly, who face a high risk of lonely deaths following middle-aged individuals, health problems were identified as their most challenging point, and their service needs varied from accompanying outdoor activities to hospital treatments. To support this group, the integration of various medical, healthcare, and caregiving services within the community will be strengthened (MOHW, 2023).

6. Policy implications and recommendations

Cross-national research in order to improve the level of national policymaking is a century-old concept and policymakers in every society constantly have referred to the lessons that they draw from the experience of other nations (Rose, 1991). It would also be meaningful for the UK and Korea to find lessons from each other’s case to reflect current policy situations and to devise new policies accordingly.

The UK needs to import the comprehensive approach of Korea to address single-person household issue. Despite the daunting number of one-person households (around 30% of all households), policies under the name of single- or one-person households are rarely found in the UK. Many single-person households, that are more likely to be vulnerable in terms of housing, are less likely to be priority for UK’s social housing supply, still being centered on households with children, and prioritizing one-person households in extreme poverty such as homeless people (Lee, 2019). Furthermore, the supply of small size rental housing, which could be one of housing solutions for single-person household, has also been sluggish (Bennett and Dixon, 2006). It is high time for the UK to reorganize overall welfare system and develop basic and comprehensive plans under the clear policy agenda ‘single-person household’, including its accomplishment tackling loneliness/isolation. Establishment of exclusive taskforce or department dedicating one-person household issue could be a start.

From the UK, Korea can learn the county’s fundamental approach to problems having more considerable impact on society and individuals: social isolation and loneliness. Even though lonely death is becoming prevalent among people living alone and it clearly demonstrates blind spots of welfare system for single-person households, it appears that the comprehensive plan of Seoul city government regarding one-person households focus much more on superficial support such as hospital accompanying service and more installments of surveillance cameras and streetlights in residential areas. Moreover, even if there is an exclusive department only for one-person households, major issues pertaining to them, such as caring the elderly living alone, discovering people fallen in poverty without any welfare benefits, and supplying tailored housing for one-person households, are being dealt with by separate departments, impeding cooperation among them. For continuous and effective enforcement of single-person household policies, more cooperative atmosphere should be made among all sectors, especially among politicians no matter what their parties are, and the role of civil sectors including charities and NGOs as a policy entrepreneur needs to be expanded and strengthen, just like the UK to address loneliness, as the single-person household issue would possibly be one of the most fatal blows in Korea, referring to remarkably fast increasing pace of single households.

For more effective enforcement of single-person household policies, different approaches might be needed depending on the household’s characteristics.

People living alone can be split into two groups – "elective" single-person households who have chosen solo living voluntarily, and "forced" single-person households who have been constrained to live alone by circumstances (Lewis, 2005). Policymakers of both two countries need to consider this categorization to design comprehensive and detailed policies for one-person households.

The forced group is more prone to poverty and other disadvantages as a result of living alone, and the people forced into solo living particularly as a result of a breakdown of relationship tend to have harder time to have social networks necessary to sustain them (Bennett and Dixon, 2006). Furthermore, in a survey, although 84% of people living alone answered that solo living was their choice, when asked in detail about their reasons for living alone a lot smaller proportion of them answered that it was a free choice, while the others turned out to be an adaptation to adverse events (Lewis, 2005). Therefore, the forced group could be major target of more active single-person household policies including alleviation of poverty and loneliness.

For the elective group, on the other hand, could be mattered in different perspective. Policymakers should be sensitive to finding out genuine reasons why people choose solo living. Are they really enjoy living alone? What makes them prefer living alone to getting married? Isn’t it because of high cost of getting married and rearing child? Living alone might be just one of various lifestyles, however, it could be detrimental to national sustainability, especially the number of youth population living alone on the rise. With similar policies with the forced group particularly regarding loneliness, a far more fundamental approach is necessary for the elective group to discover the real cause and design customized policy accordingly.

Experts say that in Korea, which is expected to enter a "super-aged society" with the elderly population exceeding 20% by 2025, there is a need for a national response to address social loneliness. Solitary deaths among single-person households and the elderly, who are isolated from society due to various reasons such as unemployment and illness, have already become significant social issues as they deprive individuals of their dignity and prematurely end their lives. In Korea, one out of three people is now living in a single-person household, which has become a common household type. From 2025 to 2045, as the super-aged society approaches, single-person households are projected to increase by 20.7%, with their share in the total households rising from 32.3% to 37.1%. With a decreasing young generation due to low birth rates and a rapid increase in the elderly population, this trend is expected to continue (Jung, 2022).

The UK takes a cross-governmental approach to the issue of loneliness, with the central government playing a leading role in formulating and implementing policies. However, it also demonstrates exemplary cases of public-private collaboration, where various stakeholders, including for-profit companies, non-profit organizations, charities, communities, and even family and friends, share responsibilities and engage in mutual cooperation (Yu et al., 2021). Like the UK’s case, social loneliness cannot be solved solely through government efforts; above all, the participation and support of local communities and workplaces (businesses) are urgently needed (Shin and Choi, 2019).

For successful policy development and implementation, it is necessary to divide roles and responsibilities. First, the government should establish a dedicated department for loneliness, creating an integrated support system that can connect existing initiatives organically. Emphasis should be placed on promoting awareness and improving public perception, encouraging citizens to recognize loneliness as a social issue and actively participate in response efforts. Additionally, businesses need to proactively address issues such as bullying in workplaces and foster a corporate culture that values care for colleagues. Lastly, the role of local communities seems crucial. Since loneliness is not only an individual problem but also a community issue, it is difficult to address without the involvement of local communities. Developing programs that facilitate interactions among individuals experiencing social loneliness within the community, and encouraging voluntary participation and personal understanding of the program's purpose and necessity, might be of utmost importance (Shin and Choi, 2019).

7. Conclusion

The increase in single-person households seems to be an irreversible global trend. Living in a single-person household can be a personal choice, and it doesn't necessarily mean there is no one to rely on in the vicinity. However, the rise in single-person households inevitably exacerbates issues of loneliness and social isolation. In this study, through comparing the cases of the UK and Korea, which have adopted different policy approaches to this global phenomenon, I aimed to broaden the policy perspectives and gain insights that could be useful for future policies on single-person households and the recently announced policies on preventing lonely deaths.

The UK's approach to loneliness policies emphasizes a holistic and inclusive perspective, targeting the wider societal impact of loneliness and promoting awareness and active participation across all segments of society. This broad focus allows for a more comprehensive understanding of loneliness and its underlying causes, enabling the development of effective and sustainable interventions.

On the other hand, Korea's policies have predominantly concentrated on providing support and assistance to single-person households and addressing the tragic issue of lonely death. While these efforts are crucial, there is a need to broaden the scope and consider a more comprehensive approach that encompasses the diverse forms of loneliness experienced by individuals in different household arrangements.

Recently, a master plan for preventing lonely deaths has been announced in Korea. While it is important to reduce the number of lonely deaths among high-risk groups and vulnerable areas, it is crucial to place greater emphasis on addressing the underlying causes of loneliness and social isolation, which contribute to lonely deaths. As seen in social network surveys that inquire about the presence of someone to rely on when help is needed, where Korea ranks among the lowest among OECD countries, Korea faces serious levels of loneliness and social isolation. To address this issue, it is essential to seek support from workplaces and local communities, where a significant portion of one's life is spent. Therefore, it might be worth examining the loneliness policies of the UK, which actively involve various stakeholders, including government, civil society, and businesses, by breaking down barriers between ministries and even political parties.

8. References

Bennett, J., Dixon, M.  (2006)  Single person households and social policy: Looking forwards, Joseph Rowntree Foundation York.

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